communication意思 Silence,in,Intercultural,communication

　　Abstract: In communication, most of people’s attention focuses on verbal communication, nonverbal language as a means of exchange is often ignored. However, nonverbal language continues sending signals, and most of these signals are sent to conversational partners unconsciously. So correct understanding of these signals will help people improve effectiveness of communication. This article will focus on silence, a major part of nonverbal communication, exploring its communicative functions and cultural differences.
　　Key words: silence, intercultural communication, culture, communicative functions
　　中图分类号： G642 文献标识码： A 文章编号：1672-1578（2012)01-0008-02
　　
　　 Generally speaking, there are two types of communicative behaviors in people’s daily communication. One is verbal, another is non-verbal. Verbal communication is operated by using language, while nonverbal communication involves all those nonverbal stimuli in a communication setting that are generated by both the source and his use of the environment and that have potential message value for the source or receiver.[1]
　　 Silence, as one of the nonverbal communication, expresses plentiful informations, and even can express information that speech can not do. The chinese proverb “Silence means more than words in the current situation” is the very evidence of silence’s importance. However, people of different cultural backgrounds have distinct attitudes and explanations for silence. This may obstruct the successful exchange in cross-cultural communication.
　　1 Silence
　　 In the process of communication, concerning for some reasons, needs or strategies, the speaker may slide over a question instead of giving certain speech or comment. In this case, it is silence. Silence is a very common communicative phenomenon, which is also a essential communicative method, being likely to surpass the strength of language.
　　 Traditionally, within the field of linguistics, silence has been defined as boundary-mark, “delimiting the beginning and end of utterances”, negatively the absence of speech or inaction, or background to speech. In fact, silence is the absence of something else: abstaining from speech or utterance, sometimes with reference to a particular matter, the state or condition when nothing is audible, omission of mention or notice.
　　 Silence, as Jaworski states, is likely to fall into the three following categories, “when communication is assumed to be taking place, but the communicator is perceived not to produce any audible verbal signals.”[2] Firstly, silence may be a state in which communication takes place. In other words, “a given communicative event is structured through or framed in silence”; secondly, silence may be formulaic, and sometimes also accompanied by other nonverbal behavior, such as bowing, smiling, waving, and so on; thirdly, silence is an activity, and as a communicative sign like other linguistic forms, silence can be interpreted.
　　2 The Communicative Functions of Silence
　　 In communication, there are several reasons for the speaker’s using of silence. The speaker may not like to talk naturally; he can not decide what to say for follows; he can not speak out for other stimuli of surprise or sadness; he wants to hind something or he was an indifferent person.
　　 Various reasons are likely to result in the same effect, that is, silence. Jensen makes a comprehensive and deep explore for “silence”. In his Communicative Functions of Silence, Jensen notes that “Silence, often accompanied by other nonverbal cues, may occupy a variety of roles in the process of communications.”[3]He sums up five communicative functions of silence.
　　 Firstly, silence can help to bind or sever relationships. In public encounters between strangers, silence is positive as used to prevent interruption and to maintain social space. Among intimates, people understand each other without putting their thoughts into words. This kind of silences may be the “linkage silence”.
　　 Secondly, in its affective role, silence may communicate and at times, shield a full range of emotions. Silence is a common strategy for the management of tense situations. It also helps the individual to mask and control the emotion and avoid direct challenge.
　　 Thirdly, in its revelational role, silence may impart some information while disclosure of other. As a nonverbal code, silence is the conveyor of message. A pair of intimates may be fond of the long silence between them on the basis of mutual understanding. However, silence may also be associated with indirectness, dishonesty or even lying, such as the jury and lawyer’s interpretation of the hesitant witness.
　　 Fourthly, silence may also be used to express judgment. There is a proverb “Silence is consent.” While in fact, silence is also dissent, or reservation and potential action. In this sense, silence in conversation can give us hint whether the silent person assents or dissents, and sometimes it may mean other things which help us make our judgment.
　　 Finally, silence, as an activator, may be associated with thoughtfulness or the absence of thought. Simply speaking, Jensen highlights the context-embedded nature of silence as a symbol in human communication. That is to say, silence functions either positively or negatively, which is dependent upon what is expected in a given speech context.
　　3 Differences between the East and the West
　　3.1 Cultural Differences of Silence
　　 It is well known that silence has communicative functions. However, in real life, people of different cultural backgrounds have distinct attitudes and explanations for silence, for silence is also a cultural phenomenon with evident cultural features.
　　 Generally speaking, eastern culture regards silence more meaningful than speech, while western culture is opposite. Most of the western people regard silence as indifference, hostility, opposition, shyness, annoyance or contemn. By the contrary, the eastern people hold positive view of silence, understanding it as respect, obedience, acceptance, contemplation or friendliness.
　　 In eastern culture, people will not feel uncomfortable for pause or silence in communication. However, in intercultural communication, their silence may result in misunderstanding. It is likely to be regarded as a negative behavior lack of sincerity and politeness. Western people will also suppose that the speaker lacks confidence or he is scared to communicate with others, or worse, even the cases of mental disorders.
　　 Saville-Trooe suggests that silence attracts less attention than speech.[4] People who are able to speak with bilinguage still have different stone from native speakers in silence. In Chinese class, students used to listen to the teachers quietly, few to interfere in teachers’ lecture. However, foreign teachers may regard this silence as indifference, for in USA, students often ask questions in class and teachers will answer them in time. This shows the differences between Chinese culture and American culture.
　　 It is also needed to note that not all the western cultures have the same attitude and explanation for silence. For example, in France, parents do not want their children talk in the face of guests. In Holland, people may stay in their bedroom for tranquility because they can not bear others’ rattle. On the contrary, American people think that the function of language is to avoid silence. Bruneau argues that even a minute of silence or solitude is rare in American. [5]
　　 With the different understandings of silence, its positive or negtive meaning all depends on context. The communicators should use this method appropriately according to different scene.
　　3.2 Reasons
　　 There are certain reasons for different explanations of silence in different countries. Edward T. Hall divides culture into two types: high-context cultures and low-context cultures.[6] The former one is dependent on context, such as Chinese culture, the latter undervalues context. He regards silence as an important standard for distinguish these two cultures. Thoughts, history or geography, thinking mode and concept for value all contribute to the different meanings of silence.
　　 Firstly, the origin of thoughts brings to culture different expression. The main Chinese thoughts are Taoist and Confucianism, to some extent, the quiet culture. People pursue to a feeling of serenity and tranquility. However, western culture stresses individualism. Silence will be a represent of lacking own opinion and experience.
　　 Secondly, history, geography and ethic structures are another reasons.Chinese culture experiences feudalism hierachical govern. In the ancient period, the best way of saving oneself is to keep silence. In western countries, it is people oriented. Every one can talk about anything they want to say.
　　 Third one is the thinking mode. Speakers need time to judge, control motion or clear mind. As a pause between communication, silence is a process of thinking. Different thinking mode results in different times of stop.
　　 The last is the concept of value. Chinese people admire collectivism, pursuing social harmony. Thus, in conversation, both sides should be euphemistic, implicit and politeful. In western countries where call for individual values and self-fulfillment, people will contest directly when express own opinions to show themselves well.
　　4 Conclusion
　　 Silence, as one of nonverbal communication, expresses plentiful informations, sometimes even more than speech. It performs unnegligible functions in our daily communication. However, people of different cultural backgrounds may have distinct attitudes and explanations for silence. In intercultural communication, we must be aware of the differences and similarities between native culture and that of other nations. Thus, the cross-cultural communicative competence will be improved essentially.
　　
　　References:
　　[1]Larry A. Samovar, Richard E. Porter, Edwin R. McDaniel. Communication between Cultures[M]. Peking University Press. 2009.
　　[2]Jaworski, Adam. The Power of Silence: Social and Pragmatic Perspectives[M]. Newbury Park. CA: Saee. 1993.
　　[3]Jensen, J. Vermon. Communicative Functions of Silence[M]. ETC. 1973.
　　[4]Saville-Troike, Muriel. The Place of Silence in an Integrated Theory of Communication. Perspectives on Silence, eds. by Deborah Tannen & Muriel Saville-Troike. Norwood, NJ: [M]Ablex. 1985.
　　[5]Bruneau, Thomas. J. Communication Silence: Forms and Functions[M]. The Journal of Communication. 1973.
　　[6]Edward T. Hal1. Beyond Culture[M]. Anchor books. 1976.